This edited collection examines the violence experienced by non-combatants during the civil wars which took place in Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. The determinants of violence in civil wars are highly complex and variable. By focusing on both the victims and perpetrators of violence in eight European countries, including Russia, Ireland, France and Spain, the book explores what happened when differing groups within a polity clashed, and in which ways internal conflicts manifested themselves and permeated societies. Divided into two parts, the chapters firstly identify and analyse how rearguard violence was produced and exercised during the European civil wars, and secondly, they examine the violence perpetrated by, and against, women. Shedding light on the violence that was inflicted upon European civilians in the early- to mid-twentieth century, this book presents insights for historians of Europe, political scientists, and international relations scholars alike.